~~Also known as Emperor Tai Zu, Nurhaci or Nurgaci(1559-September 30, 1626; r. 1616-September 30, 1626) was the chieftain of a Jurchen tribe in northeastern Manchuria. He is considered to be the founding father of the Manchu state and is also credited with ordering the creation of a written script for the Manchu language. Nurhaci's organisation of the Manchu people, his attacks on the Ming Dynasty and Joseon Dynasty Korea, and his conquest of China's northeastern Liaodong province, laid the groundwork for the conquest of China by the Qing Dynasty.

Hong Taiji was the eighth son of Nurhaci and succeeded him as the second ruler of the Later Jin dynasty in 1626. Although it was always thought as a gossip, he was said to be involved in the suicide of Prince Dorgon's mother, Lady Abahai in order to block the succession of his younger brother.

He continued the expansion of the state in the region later known as Manchuria, pushing deeper into Mongolia and raiding Korea and Ming China. His personal military abilities were widely praised and he effectively developed the military-civil administration known as the Eight Banners or Banner system. This system was well-suited to accept the different peoples, primarily Chinese and Mongols, who joined the Manchu state either following negotiated agreements or military defeat.

Although the historical record is unclear on the matter, it is quite possible that it was the ongoing incorporation of different peoples into the Later Jin state that encouraged Hong Taiji to change the name of both his people and the dynasty.

In 1635, Hong Taiji changed the name of his people from Jurchen to Manchu, or Manju in the Manchu language. The original meaning of Manju is not known and so the reasons for its adoption remain opaque. There are many theories as to the reason for the choice of name but two of the most commonly cited are its sounding similar to the Manchu word for "brave" and a possible connection with the Bodhisattva Manjusri, the Bodhisattva of Wisdom, of whom Nurhaci claimed to be an incarnation.

The dynastic name Later Jin was a direct reference to the Jin dynasty founded by the Jurchen people who ruled northern China from 1115 to 1234. As such, the name was likely to be viewed as closely tied to the Jurchens and would perhaps evoke hostility from Chinese who viewed the Song dynasty, rival state to the Jin, as the legitimate rulers of China at that time. Hong Taiji's ambition was to conquer China proper and overthrow the Ming dynasty, and to do that required not only a powerful military force but also an effective bureaucratic administration. For this, he used the obvious model, that of the Ming government, and recruited Ming officials to his cause. If the name of Later Jin would prove an impediment to his goal among many Chinese, then it was not too much to change it. Whatever the precise motivation, Hong Taiji proclaimed the establishment of the Qing dynasty in 1636. The reasons for the choice of Qing as the new name are likewise unclear, although it has been speculated that the sound - Jin and Qing are pronouced similiarly in Manchu - or wuxing theory - traditional ideas held that fire, associated with the character for Ming, was overcome by water, associated with the character for Qing - may have influenced the choice.

Hong Taiji died in 1643, possibly at the hands of one of his officials, just a few months before his army would seize control of Beijing. He therefore did not live to see his ambition of conquering Ming China come about, although his son, the Shunzhi Emperor, succeeded him and became the first of the Qing dynasty emperors to govern China. That the Qing state succeeded not only in conquering China but also in establishing a capable administration was due in large measure to the foresight and policies of Hong Taiji.

Life of Shunzhi

He ascended to the throne aged five (six according to traditional Chinese count) in 1643 upon the death of his father, Hong Taiji, but actual power during the early part of his reign lay in the hands of the appointed regents, Princes Dorgon and Jirgalang. With the Qing pacification of the former Ming provinces almost complete, he died still a young man, although in circumstances that have lent themselves to rumour and speculation.

In the midst of much upheaval, the Manchus seized control of Beijing in June 1644, and in October of the same year the Shunzhi emperor's uncle, the chief regent Prince, proclaimed the Qing dynasty to be the legitimate successor to the Ming dynasty. Therefore, although the Shunzhi emperor was not the founder of the Qing dynasty, he was the first Qing emperor of China.

His mother was the Empress Dowager Xiaozhuang who was an excellent politician during the period. The young emperor disliked his uncle, the chief regent Prince Dorgon, and after Dorgon's death in 1650 the emperor stripped both him and Dorgon's brother, Dodo, of their titles, although he was only 12 years old at the time.

During his short reign, the Shunzhi emperor encouraged the Han Chinese to participate in government activities. He was a scholar and employed Han Chinese to teach his children.

The emperor married his mother's niece, but demoted the empress several years later. Four months after his favourite concubine passed away, he died of smallpox. Before he passed away, he appointed four regents govern for his child son, Hiowan Yei: Oboi, Sonin, Suksaha, and Ebilun.

According to official sources, the Shunzhi Emperor died in 1661 of smallpox. It was also believed by some that the young emperor did not pass away but left the palace to become a monk.

He was interred in the Eastern Qing Tombs ( 125 kilometers/75 miles east of Beijing, in the Xiaoling (¢ê) mausoleum complex .

The Beginning of the Reign
Technically, the Kangxi Emperor inherited his father Fulin's throne at the age of seven. Since Kangxi was not able to rule in his childhood, the Shunzhi Emperor appointed Sonin, Suksaha, Ebilun, and Oboi as Regents. Sonin died soon after his granddaughter was made the Empress, leaving Suksaha at odds with Oboi politically. In a fierce power struggle, Oboi seized absolute power as sole Regent. For a while Kangxi and the Court accepted this arrangement. In 1669 the Emperor arrested Oboi with help from the Grand Empress Dowager Xiaozhuang and began to take control himself.

In the spring of 1662, Kangxi ordered the Great Clearance in southern China, in order to fight the anti-Qing movement, began by Ming Dynasty loyalists under the leadership of Zheng Chenggong (also known as Koxinga), to regain Beijing. This involved moving the entire population of the coastal regions of southern China inland.

He listed three major issues of concern, being the flood control of the Yellow River, the repairing of the Grand Canal and the revolt of the three feudatories in South China. The Revolt of the Three Feudatories broke out in 1673 and Burni of the Chakhar Mongols also started a rebellion in 1675.

The revolt of the three feudatories proved to be hard to defeat. Wu Sangui's forces had overrun most of southern China and he tried to ally himself with local generals. A prominent general of this kind was Wang Fuchen.

Kangxi crushed the rebellious Mongols within two months and incorporated the Chakhar into the Eight Banners. After the surrender of the Zheng family, the Qing Dynasty annexed Taiwan in 1684. Soon afterwards, the coastal regions were ordered to be repopulated, and to encourage settlers, the Qing government gave a pecuniary incentive to each settling family.

He was a tough and hard-working ruler bent on effective government at minimum expense. Like his father, the Kangxi Emperor, Yongzheng used military force to preserve the dynasty's position. His reign was despotic, efficient, and vigorous, albeit much shorter than the famous reigns of both his father the Kangxi Emperor and his son the Qianlong Emperor.

Disputed Succession to the throne
In 1712 the Kangxi Emperor removed his second son, Yinreng, as successor to the throne and did not designate another one. This led to division in Court, which was split among supporters of Yinzhi, Yinzhen, Yinsi, and Yinti, the 3rd, 4th, 8th and 14th Imperial Princes, respectively. By the time of the old Emperor's death in December 1722, the field of contenders had been reduced down to three Princes after Yinsi pledged his support to Yinti, Yinzhi, Yinti, and Yinzhen.

At the time of the Kangxi Emperor's death, Yinti, as Border Pacification General-in-chief, was away on the warfront in the northwest. The official record states that on December 20th, Kangxi called to his bedside seven of his sons and the General Commandant of the Peking Gendarmerie, Longkedo and declared that Yinzhen should succeed him on the imperial throne. According to folklore, Yinzhen forged his father's will and took power in a coup d'etat at the capital. Whilst this folklore had been widely circulated, there was little evidence to support the view. As the first official act as Emperor, Yinzhen released his long-time ally, Yinxiang, from prison. An able military leader, Yinxiang assembled a group of special task Beijing soldiers to seize immediate control of the Forbidden City and surrounding areas. Secondly, Yinzhen had noticeably favoured Yinsi and Yinti in administrative affairs.

Early years
There are many myths and legends that say Hongli was actually a Han and not of Manchu descent, whilst there were some that say Hongli is only half Manchu and half Han Chinese descent. Nevertheless, looking at historical records, Hongli was adored both by his grandfather, the Kangxi Emperor and his father, the Yongzheng Emperor. Some historians argue that the main reason why Kangxi Emperor appointed Yongzheng as his successor to the throne was because of Qianlong as he was his favourite grandson and felt that Hongli's mannerism and ways to be very close to his own. As a child he was very able in martial arts, and possessed very great literary ability.

After his father's succession to the throne in 1722, Hongli became the Prince Bao (¦×õ). Like many of his uncles, Hongli entered in a battle of succession with his brother Hongshi, who had the support of a large faction of court officials, as well as Yinsi, the Prince Lian. For many years the Yongzheng Emperor did not allow the position of Crown Prince, but many speculated he favored Hongli. Hongli went on inspection trips to the south, and was known to be an able negotiator and enforcer. Hongli was also chosen as chief regent on occasions, when his father was away from the capital.

Legends
According to Field History of Qing Dynasty, Qianglong was the son of Chen Yuan-Long of Haining. Emperor Kangxi chose the heir to his throne based not just on his son's capability to govern the Empire, but also whether his grandson was of no lesser calibre, to ensure the Manchus' everlasting reign over the country. Yongzheng's own son was a weakling and he surreptitiously arranged for his daughter to be swapped for Chen Yuan-Long's son, who became apple of Kangxi's eye. Thus, Yongzheng got to succeed the throne, and his "son", Hongli, subsequently became Emperor Qianlong. Later, when Qianlong went to southern part of the country four times, he stayed in Chen's house in Haining, leaving behind his calligraphy and also frequently also issued imperial decree making Haining a tax-free state.

Stories about Qianlong visiting the Jiang Nan area disguised as a commoner had been a popular topic for many generations.

Son of the famous Qianlong Emperor, he is remembered for his prosecution of He Shen the infamously corrupt favorite of Emperor Qianlong, as well as for trying to restore the state and curb the smuggling of opium inside China.

He was born at the Old Summer Palace ( 8km (5 mi) northwest of the walls of Beijing, and was given the name Yongyan , changed into Yongyan when he became emperor: the first character of his private name was changed from ?both pronounced Yong, so that his brothers and cousins of the same generation would not have to change the first character of their names (a character identical for all relatives of the same generation), which they should normally have done given that the private name of an emperor is taboo and cannot be written or pronounced. This novelty was introduced by his father Emperor Qianlong who thought it not proper to have a whole generation of people changing their names on his son's accession to the throne.

He was the fifteenth son of Qianlong. His mother was a Han Chinese concubine, Concubine of the second rank Ling (î, who became a favorite of Qianlong. She was posthumously made Empress Xiaoyi Chun when her son became emperor. She was the daughter of Wei Qingtai, an official in the Qing administration whose Han Chinese family had long been integrated in the Manchu elites. In 1818 Emperor Jiaqing made his mother's family officially Manchu, and changed their Chinese family name Wei into the Manchu clan name Weigiya.

After the first two original choices for heir to the throne succumbed early to disease, in December 1773 Yongyan was secretly chosen by Qianlong to be the next emperor. In 1789 he was made Prince of the 1st rank Jia

At the end of his reign, Qianlong became infatuated with a Manchu government minister called He Shen Prince Jia hated the notoriously corrupt He Shen for his abuse of power, and vowed to punish the minister once he became an emperor.

In October 1795, in the 60th year of his reign, Emperor Qianlong announced his intention to abdicate in favor of Prince Jia, because he did not thought it proper to rule longer than his grandfather, the late Kangxi Emperor. Prince Jia was crowned with the reign title Jiaqing in February 1796. For the next three years however, Jiaqing ruled as Emperor in name only. Decisions were made by his father, the retired emperor Qianlong.

At the death of Qianlong in the beginning of February 1799, Jiaqing took control of the government and prosecuted He Shen. He Shen was charged with corruption and abuse of power. His titles and properties were stripped off, and he was ordered to commit suicide. He Shen's daughter in law was a sister of the new emperor and she was spared from the punishment. She was given a few properties from Heshen estates.

At the time the empire was facing internal disorders, such as the large scale White Lotus Rebellion (1796-1804), and the treasury was empty. Emperor Jiaqing engaged in pacification of the empire and quelling of rebellions, and he tried to bring the country back to its 18th century prosperity and power; but due to large outflows of silver out of the country because of the opium smuggled inside China from British India, the economy was in decline.

On September 2, 1820, Jiaqing died at the Rehe Traveling Palace , 230 km (140 mi) northeast of Beijing, where the imperial court was in summer quarters. Allegedly he died after being struck by lightning, but not all sources agree on that. He was also said to have been killed by a mob. He was succeeded by his second son, Emperor Daoguang.

Jiaqing was interred amidst the Western Qing Tombs, 120 km (75 mi) southwest of Beijing, in the Changling (ýê - meaning "Splendid tomb") mausoleum complex.

He was born in the Forbidden City, Beijing, and was given the name Mianning , changed into Minning when he became emperor: the first character of his private name was changed from Mian to Min so that his brothers and cousins of the same generation would not have to change the first character of their names (a character identical for all relatives of the same generation), which they should normally have done given that the private name of an emperor is taboo and cannot be written or pronounced. This novelty was introduced by his grandfather the Qianlong Emperor who thought it not proper to have a whole generation of people in the imperial family changing their names on an emperor's accession to the throne.

He was the second son of Yongyan , who became the Jiaqing Emperor in 1796. His mother, the principal wife of Yongyan, was Lady Hitara, of the (Manchu) Hitara clan, who became empress when Jiaqing ascended the throne in 1796. She is known posthumously as Empress Xiaoshu Rui (¢ç£Êó).

During his reign China experienced major problems with opium, which was imported into China by British merchants. He made many edicts against opium in the 1820s and 1830s, which ultimately led to the First Opium War against Britain. China lost this war and was forced to surrender Hong Kong at the Treaty of Nanking.

Daoguang died on February 25, 1850 at the Old Summer Palace km/5 miles northwest of the walls of Beijing.

He was interred amidst the Western Qing Tombs 120 kilometers/75 miles southwest of Beijing, in the Muling meaning "Tomb of longing", or "Tomb of admiration") mausoleum complex.

Yizhu was born in 1831 at the Old Summer Palace, eight kilometers northwest of the walls of Beijing, and was the fourth son of the Daoguang Emperor. His mother was the concubine of the 2nd rank Quan ( of the (Manchu) Niohuru clan, who was made Empress in 1834, and is known posthumously as Empress Xiaoquan Cheng.

Chosen as the Crown Prince in the later years of Daoguang's reign, Yizhu had reputed ability in literature and administration which surpassed most of his brothers. He succeeded the throne in 1850, at age 19, and was a relatively young Emperor. He was left with a crumbling dynasty that faced challenges not only internally, but also from Europeans. The situation was not reflected at all by his reign title, Xianfeng, which means "Great in entirety". The Taiping Rebellion began in 1851, and spread to several provinces with amazing speed. Xianfeng dispatched several prominent mandarins, like Zeng Guofan, and Imperial relatives, like Sengeliqin, to crush the rebellion, with limited success. Several muslim rebellions in the southwest began in 1855.

As western imperialism was cruising its way through Asia, China was not spared. The Europeans saw a crumbling regime as ripe for the enforcement of imperialistic policies on China. Western forces, led by France, after inciting a few battles on the coast near Tianjin, of which not all were decisive victories, attempted "negotiation" with the Qing Government. Xianfeng, under the influence of the Concubine Yi ( later the Empress Dowager Cixi), believed in Chinese superiority and would not agree to any western demands. He delegated Prince Gong for several negotiations that failed to solve any significant problems. On October 18, 1860, the western forces went on to loot and burn the Imperial Summer Palace

While negotiations are still ongoing with western governments, Xianfeng and his Imperial entourage fled to the northern travelling palace in Jehol. Becoming more ill physically, Xianfeng's ability to govern also deteriorated, leading to competing ideologies in court that eventually formed two distinct factions ªª those under the rich Manchu Sushun, Princes Yi and Zheng; and those under the Concubine Yi, supported by Gen. Ronglu and Yeho-nala Bannermen.

Xianfeng died on August 22, 1861 at the Jehol Traveling Palace , 230 kilometers northeast of Beijing. Being succeeded by his one surviving son, Zaichun, who was barely six years old, Xianfeng had summoned Sushun and his group to his bedside a day before, giving them an Imperial Edict that made Sushun, Zaiyuan, Duanhua, and others Regents during the child-Emperor's minority. By tradition, after the death of an Emperor, the body is to be accompanied to the Capital by the regents. Concubine Yi and the Empress, who are now both given titles of Empress Dowager, traveled to Beijing ahead of time, and planned a coup that ousted Sushun's regency. The Empress Dowager Cixi (Concubine Yi) would rule China for the next 47 years.

Xianfeng was interred amidst the Eastern Qing Tombs 125 kilometers/75 miles east of Beijing, in the Dingling- meaning "Tomb of quietude") mausoleum complex.

The only son of the Xianfeng Emperor and the Empress Dowager Cixi, Tongzhi attempted political reform in the period of the Tongzhi Restoration. His first reign name was Qixiang , but this name was later abandoned by Cixi in favour of Tongzhi, a contraction of the classical phrase tonggui yu zhi), which means "to reform/restore together a state of order", although it has been interpreted as "to rule the state with an united mother/son team" which fits the description, as his mother, Empress Dowager Cixi, wielded the real power and ruled behind the scene. The traditional Chinese political phrase "attending audiences behind a drawn curtain" , which had already been used earlier in Chinese history, was used to describe Cixi's rule through her son the Tongzhi Emperor. The phrase can still be heard in contemporary Chinese politics sometimes.

Tongzhi became an emperor of the age of five when his father, the Xianfeng Emperor passed away. His birth mother, Empress Dowager Cixi, his father's Empress, the Empress Dowager Ci'an, and his uncle, the Prince Gong, became regents after getting rid of the former regent, Sushun.

Tongzhi married Lady Alute from a Mongol clan and died of smallpox at the age of 19. He had no sons to succeed him. There are those who say Tongzhi died from STD, in particular Syphilis (due to his alleged affairs with prostitutes outside of the palace), and that the smallpox diagnosis was given only because the mere discussions of STD in China is a taboo, even in present day. However, such an allegation cannot be substantiated with credible evidence.

His mothers, the two dowagers, resumed regency after appointing 1st Prince Chun's son, Guangxu, his reigning title.

A few months after Tongzhi's death, Empress Alute committed suicide. It is also said that Cixi ordered her to be pushed down a well for reasons unknown.

House arrest
Cixi had Guangxu placed under house arrest in an environment of total isolation, to the point where even court Eunuchs chosen were to strategically serve this purpose. Although Cixi never forced Guangxu to abdicate, and his era had in name continued until 1908, Guangxu had lost all honours, respect, power, and priviledges given to the Emperor of the Great Qing other than its name. Most of his supporters were exiled, while some were executed in public by Cixi. Kang Youwei continued to work for a more progressive Qing Empire while in exile, remaining loyal to Guangxu and hoping to eventually restore him to power. Western governments, too, were in favour of Guangxu being the only power figure in China, replacing the Empress Dowager. A joint official document issued by western governments stated that only the name Guangxu was to be recognized as the legal authoritative figure, over all others. This only further angered Cixi.

There was dispute, for a period of time, for whether Guangxu should continue to reign, even if it is all but in name, as Emperor, or simply be removed altogether. Most court officials seemed to agree with the latter choice, but loyal Manchus such as Ronglu pleaded otherwise.

In 1901, the Eight-Nation Alliance of Western powers and Japan entered China and occupied Beijing following a declaration of war which Guangxu opposed, but had no power to stop. Guangxu fled with Cixi to Xi'an, dressed in civilian outfits.

Returning to the Forbidden City after the withdrawal of western powers, Guangxu was known to have spent the next few years working with watches and clocks in his isolated palace, which had been a childhood fascination, some say in an effort to pass the time until the death of the Empress Dowager. He still had supporters, whether inside China or in exile, who wished to return him to real power.

The funeral procession of Guangxu Emperor, November 1908Guangxu died on November 14, 1908, a day before Cixi. Many suspect he was poisoned by the Empress Dowager. He was succeeded by Cixi's handpicked heir, his nephew Puyi, who became the Xuantong Emperor. His consort, who became the Empress Dowager Longyu, signed the abdication decree as regent in 1912, ending two thousand years of imperial rule in China. She died, childless, in 1913

Aisin-Gioro, Puyi (Henry)1 (February 7, 1906 October 17, 1967) was the Xuantong Emperor of China between 1908 and 1924 (ruling emperor between 1908 and 1912, and non-ruling emperor between 1912 and 1924), the tenth (and last) emperor of the Manchu Qing Dynasty to rule over China. Later between 1934 and 1945 he was the Kangde Emperor ) of Manchukuo. In the People's Republic of China he was a member of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference from 1964 until his death in 1967 under the Chinese name Aixinjueluo Puyi. Puyi is also widely known as the Last Emperor

Name
In English he is known more simply as Puyi (Pu-i in Wade-Giles romanization), which is in accordance with the Manchu tradition of never using an individual's clan name and given name together, but is in complete contravention with the traditional Chinese and Manchu custom whereby the private given name of an emperor was considered taboo and ineffable. It may be that the use of the given name Puyi after the overthrow of the empire was thus a political technique, an attempt to express desecration of the old order. Indeed, after Puyi lost his imperial title in 1924 he was officially styled "Mr. Puyi" in China. His clan name Aisin-Gioro was seldom used. He is also known to have used the name "Henry", a name allegedly chosen with his English language teacher, Scotsman Reginald Johnston, in reference to King Henry VIII of England. However, the name Henry was merely used in communication with Westerners between around 1920 and 1932, and is never used in China.

Ruler of Manchukuo

"Emperor Henry Pu Yi," Time, Mar. 5, 1934On March 1, 1932, he was installed by the Japanese as the ruler of Manchukuo under the reign title Datong (ó¬). In 1934 he was officially crowned the emperor of Manchukuo under the reign title Kangde (µÂ). He was constantly at odds with the Japanese in private, though gushingly submissive in person. He resented being "Head of State" and then "Emperor of Manchukuo" rather than being fully restored as Qing Emperor. At his enthronement he clashed with Japan over dress; they wished him to wear a Manchukuoan uniform whereas he considered it an insult to wear anything but traditional Qing robes. In a typical compromise, he wore a uniform to his enthronement and dragon robes to the announcement of his accession at the altar of heaven.

As Emperor of Manchukuo, Puyi's household was closely watched by the Japanese who began taking increasing steps in the full Japanification of Manchuria, as they had done in Korea and elsewhere. When Puyi went on a state visit to Tokyo he was embarrassingly flattering of the Japanese imperial family. At a review, he even thanked Emperor Hirohito for "allowing" clear skies and sunshine for the event. He began taking a greater interest in Buddhism during these empty years, some would call it becoming more devoutly religious, others would call it becoming more superstitious and paranoid. However, Japan soon forced him to make Shintoism the national religion of Manchukuo. Slowly, his old supporters were eliminated and pro-Japanese ministers put in their place. During this time, his life consisted mostly of signing laws prepared by Japan, reciting prayers, consulting oracles and making formal visits around his kingdom.

Ruler of Manchukuo

"Emperor Henry Pu Yi," Time, Mar. 5, 1934On March 1, 1932, he was installed by the Japanese as the ruler of Manchukuo under the reign title Datong (ó¬). In 1934 he was officially crowned the emperor of Manchukuo under the reign title Kangde. He was constantly at odds with the Japanese in private, though gushingly submissive in person. He resented being "Head of State" and then "Emperor of Manchukuo" rather than being fully restored as Qing Emperor. At his enthronement he clashed with Japan over dress; they wished him to wear a Manchukuoan uniform whereas he considered it an insult to wear anything but traditional Qing robes. In a typical compromise, he wore a uniform to his enthronement and dragon robes to the announcement of his accession at the altar of heaven.

As Emperor of Manchukuo, Puyi's household was closely watched by the Japanese who began taking increasing steps in the full Japanification of Manchuria, as they had done in Korea and elsewhere. When Puyi went on a state visit to Tokyo he was embarrassingly flattering of the Japanese imperial family. At a review, he even thanked Emperor Hirohito for "allowing" clear skies and sunshine for the event. He began taking a greater interest in Buddhism during these empty years, some would call it becoming more devoutly religious, others would call it becoming more superstitious and paranoid. However, Japan soon forced him to make Shintoism the national religion of Manchukuo. Slowly, his old supporters were eliminated and pro-Japanese ministers put in their place. During this time, his life consisted mostly of signing laws prepared by Japan, reciting prayers, consulting oracles and making formal visits around his kingdom.

Later life

At the end of World War II, he was captured by Soviet Red Army (1945) and turned over to the Chinese Communists in 1950. He spent ten years in a reeducation camp in Fushun, was declared reformed, and claimed to become a supporter of the Communists. Afterwards, he worked at the Beijing Botanical Gardens. He was made a member of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, in which he served from 1964 until his death in 1967. He wrote an autobiography- "The former half of my life", translated in English as From Emperor to Citizen) in the 1960s and died in Beijing of cancer during the Cultural Revolution.

His life was portrayed in Bernardo Bertolucci's renowned film The Last Emperor. Although containing some elements of dramatic license, the film is considered to be a plausible portrayal of his life.

In both his autobiography and the film, Puyi is portrayed as a largely-innocent pawn controlled by more powerful figures. Some historians are skeptical about this account; indeed, Puyi had a very strong interest in minimizing his own role in history, because any admission of active control would most likely have led to a death sentence.

At the age of 16, in 1922, he married two women. His first choice for wife was Wen Xiu (1907-1950/51), who was deemed by court officials to be not beautiful enough to be an empress; designated a concubine, she eventually divorced him. His second choice, a Manchu considered highly attractive, named Wan Rong or "Beauty in Flower" (1906-1946, a.k.a Elizabeth, a.k.a. Radiant Countenance), became empress, addicted to opium, and finally died in a Chinese prison. His third wife was Tan Yuling, whom he married around 1939; teenaged at the time, she was a Manchu who died mysteriously six years later after being attended for her illness by a Japanese-occupation doctor. His fourth wife, a Han, Li Yuquin (d. 2001), whom he met when she was a student, divorced him after 15 years and died of cirrhosis of the liver. In 1962, he married for the fifth time to another Han, Li Shuxian (1925-1997), a nurse, who was to die of lung cancer. The emperor had no children. Some maintain he had homosexual tendencies.

In 1995, his widow was allowed to transfer his ashes to a commercial cemetery near the Western Qing Tombs, 120 kilometers/75 miles southwest of Beijing, where four of the nine Qing emperors preceding him are interred, along with 3 empresses, and 69 princes, princesses, and imperial concubines. In accordance to the laws of the People's Republic of China at the time, Puyi's body was cremated, unlike the bodies of his ancestors, which were interred whole.